Table 3 Nested multilevel regression of tobacco consumption (any) among middle aged and elderly Indian adults with various demographic, socioeconomic, health related and behavioural determinants (* p-value < 0.05)

Age group (years)

 45–59

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 > 60

1.19 (1.15–1.23)*

1.19 (1.14–1.23)*

1.16 (1.12–1.21)*

1.23 (1.18–1.28)*

Gender

 Male

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Female

0.20 (0.19–0.21)*

0.16 (0.15–0.16)*

0.15 (0.14–0.16)*

0.23 (0.22–0.24)*

Demographic and socioeconomic factors

 Religion

  Hindu

Reference

Reference

Reference

   Muslim

1.31 (1.24–1.39)*

1.31 (1.24–1.39)*

1.76 (1.66–1.86)*

   Christian

0.57 (0.54–0.63)*

0.58 (0.54–0.63)*

0.59 (0.55–0.64)*

   Others

0.32 (0.30–0.36)*

0.33 (0.30–0.37)*

0.30 (0.27–0.33)*

Caste

 Schedule caste

Reference

Reference

Reference

  Schedule tribe

0.91 (0.86–0.98)*

0.93 (0.87–0.99)*

0.78 (0.73–0.84)*

  OBC

0.67 (0.64–0.72)*

0.68 (0.65–0.72)*

0.70 (0.66–0.74)*

  Others

0.74 (0.69–0.78)*

0.74 (0.70–0.79)*

0.76 (0.72–0.81)*

Wealth index

  Richest

Reference

Reference

Reference

  Richer

1.08 (1.03–1.16)*

1.09 (1.04–1.17)*

1.09 (1.04–1.18)*

  Middle

1.09 (1.02–1.15)*

1.10 (1.03–1.16)*

1.10 (1.04–1.17)*

  Poorer

1.11 (1.05–1.18)*

1.12 (1.05–1.19)*

1.12 (1.04–1.19)*

  Poorest

1.03 (0.97–1.10)

1.04 (0.98–1.10)

1.01 (0.93–1.05)

Education

 Illiterate

Reference

Reference

Reference

  Less than primary

0.89 (0.82–0.95)*

0.89 (0.82–0.96)*

0.91 (0.81–0.99)*

  Primary completed

0.84 (0.79–0.89)*

0.84 (0.79–0.89)*

0.87 (0.82–0.92)*

  Middle completed

0.76 (0.71–0.81)*

0.76 (0.71–0.81)*

0.78 (0.73–0.84)*

  Secondary school

0.50 (0.47–0.54)*

0.50 (0.47–0.54)*

0.51 (0.48–56)*

  Higher secondary

0.43 (0.39–0.47)*

0.43 (0.39–0.47)*

0.45 (0.41–0.49)*

  Diploma/ Graduate

0.29 (0.27–0.33)*

029 (0.27–0.33)*

0.31 (0.28–0.35)*

Marital status

 Unmarried

Reference

Reference

Reference

  Married/ in live -in

1.11 (0.94–1.31)

1.11 (0.94–1.31)

1.03 (0.86–1.22)

  Widow/ separated/ divorced

1.46 (1.23–1.74)*

1.46 (1.23–1.74)*

1.34 (1.12–1.60)*

 Residence

  Rural

Reference

Reference

Reference

  Urban

0.70 (0.68–0.74)*

0.74 (0.71–0.77)*

0.72 (0.69–0.76)*

Health Insurance

  No

Reference

Reference

Reference

  Yes

1.01 (0.89–1.13)

1.02 (0.90–1.15)

0.96 (0.85–1.10)

 Occupation

  Unemployed

Reference

Reference

Reference

   Professional and semi-professional

1.06 (0.93–1.20)

1.06 (0.93–1.20)

1.05 (0.92–1.20)

   Clerical and skilled

1.39 (1.33–1.46)*

1.34 (1.27–1.41)*

1.32 (1.25–1.39)*

   Unskilled

1.41 (1.34–1.48)*

1.36 (1.29–1.43)*

1.26 (1.20–1.33)*

 Living alone

  No

Reference

Reference

Reference

  Yes

0.94 (0.85–1.05)

0.94 (0.84–1.04)

0.95 (0.86–1.07)

 Region

 North

Reference

Reference

Reference

  Central

1.27 (1.19–1.36)*

1.26 (1.17–1.35)*

1.36 (1.27–1.46)*

  East

1.82 (1.71–1.94)*

1.78 (1.67–1.90)*

1.81 (1.70–1.93)*

  Northeast

2.34 (2.17–1.94)*

2.42 (2.24–2.60)*

2.56 (2.37–2.76)*

  West

1.11 (1.04–1.19)*

1.17 (1.09–1.25)*

1.13 (1.05–1.21)*

  South

0.69 (0.65–0.73)*

0.70 (0.66–0.75)*

0.65 (0.61–0.69)*

Health related factors

 Physical activity

  Everyday

Reference

Reference

   More than once / week

1.17 (1.11–1.22)*

1.11 (1.06–1.17)*

   Once / week

1.19 (1.11–1.28)*

1.13 (1.05–1.22)*

   1–3 times /month

1.25 (1.14–1.37)*

1.20 (1.09–1.33)*

   Never

1.27 (1.17–1.38)*

1.22 (1.12–1.33)*

 Self-rated health

  Excellent

Reference

Reference

  Very good

1.01 (0.91–1.11)

0.97 (0.88–1.08)

  Good

1.06 (0.96–1.17)

1.00 (0.91–1.11)

  Fair

1.42 (1.27–1.56)*

1.34 (1.21–1.49)*

  Poor

1.73 (1.55–1.94)*

1.61 (1.44–1.81)*

 Comorbidity

  No

Reference

Reference

 Yes

1.05 (0.99–1.11)

1.04 (0.98–1.10)

 Multimorbidity

  No

Reference

Reference

  Yes

1.10 (1.04–1.16)*

1.12 (1.05–1.19)*

Behavioural factors

Alcohol consumption

  No

Reference

  Yes

4.94 (4.69–5.21)*

 Media Exposure

  No

Reference

  Yes

0.89 (0.86–0.93)*

Pseudo R²

0.1053

0.1769

0.1818

0.2272

LL

−38,455.3

−35,375.1

−35,165.9

−33,215.3

LR

9048.97

6160.39

418.44

3901.19

p-value

 < 0.001

 < 0.001

 < 0.001

 < 0.001

AIC

76,916.58

70,814.19

70,415.76

66,518.56

BIC

76,943.86

71,105.16

70,797.65

66,918.64